Complete Works of Onasander Read online

  The Complete Works of

  ONASANDER

  (fl. 1st century AD)

  Contents

  The Translation

  The General

  The Greek Text

  Contents of the Greek Text

  The Dual Text

  Dual Greek and English Text

  The Biography

  Introduction to Onasander by William A. Oldfather

  The Delphi Classics Catalogue

  © Delphi Classics 2019

  Version 1

  Browse Ancient Classics

  The Complete Works of

  ONASANDER

  By Delphi Classics, 2019

  COPYRIGHT

  Complete Works of Onasander

  First published in the United Kingdom in 2019 by Delphi Classics.

  © Delphi Classics, 2019.

  All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any form other than that in which it is published.

  ISBN: 978 1 91348 705 8

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  The Translation

  Roman soldiers on the cast of Trajan’s Column, Victoria and Albert Museum, London

  The General

  Translated by The Illinois Greek Club for the Loeb Classical Library, 1923

  Onasander was a Platonic philosopher that flourished in the first century AD. We know nothing of his life, except that he was the author of a commentary on Plato’s Republic, now lost, though we still possess his Strategikos (The General), a short but comprehensive work on the duties of a general. The text is dedicated to Quintus Veranius Nepos, who was consul in AD 49 and legate of Britain. This treatise would become the chief authority for the military writings of the emperors Maurice, Leo VI, and Maurice of Saxony, who consulted it in a French translation and expressed a high opinion of the work.

  Recognised as a classic in Antiquity, it is to some extent a useful handbook even today. The work opens with a prooemium (Preface), followed by 42 chapters, some of which are very short. It deals in plain style with the sort of morals and social and military qualities and attitudes expected of a virtuous and successful general. Onasander also reflects upon a general’s optimum choice of staff, his attitude to war and the religious duties that should be carried out by a general. The treatise also analyses military formations, the challenges of difficult terrains, the construction of camps and battle formations, while finally concluding with the advised conduct of a leader after achieving a victory.

  Solidus of Maurice (539-602), who was Byzantine Emperor from 582 to 602. A prominent general, Maurice fought with success against the Sasanian Empire. He is known to have made use of Onasander’s ‘The General’.

  CONTENTS

  PROOEMIUM

  I. THE CHOICE OF A GENERAL

  II. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD GENERAL

  III. THE GENERAL’S ADVISORY COUNCIL

  IV. THE NECESSITY OF A REASONABLE CAUSE FOR WAR

  V. PROPITIATION OF THE DIVINE POWER BY THE GENERAL BEFORE LEADING THE ARMY INTO BATTLE

  VI. ON MAINTAINING MILITARY FORMATION

  VII. ON LEADING AN ARMY THROUGH NARROW DEFILES

  VIII. ON MAKING A PALISADED CAMP

  IX. ON CONTINUALLY CHANGING CAMP

  X. (1) THE NEED FOR CONTROLLING THE ARMY IN TIME OF PEACE

  XI. (1) PURSUIT OF AN APPARENTLY FLEEING ENEMY MUST NOT BE CARELESS AND HAPHAZARD

  XII. MEAL-TIMES

  XIII. COURAGE ON THE PART OF THE GENERAL WHEN IN ADVERSITY

  XIV. (1) WHEN ONE’S OWN ARMY MUST BE MADE TO FEAR THE ENEMY

  XV. THE DIFFERENCE IN BATTLE FORMATIONS

  XVI. BATTLE FORMATION WITH REGARD TO THAT OF THE ENEMY

  XVII. PLACING THE LIGHT-ARMED TROOPS, JAVELIN-THROWERS, BOWMEN AND SLINGERS, BEFORE THE PHALANX

  XVIII. DISPOSITION OF LIGHT-ARMED TROOPS IN A BROKEN COUNTRY

  XIX. THE PHALANX SHOULD LEAVE INTERVALS FOR THE LIGHT-ARMED TROOPS TO RETIRE THROUGH THE RANKS

  XX. HOW TO ATTACK, WITHOUT LIGHT-ARMED TROOPS, AN ENEMY WHO HAS MANY

  XXI. THE NEEDLESSNESS OF LENGTHENING THE PHALANX IN FEAR OF AN ENCIRCLING MOVEMENT OF THE ENEMY

  XXII. HOLDING RESERVES FOR THE ASSISTANCE OF EXHAUSTED TROOPS. HOLDING RESERVES IN CONCEALMENT

  XXIII. ANNOUNCING FAVOURABLE NEWS IN THE MIDST OF BATTLE; EVEN IF FALSE IT IS ADVANTAGEOUS

  XXIV. IN THE RANKS FRIENDS MUST BE PLACED BY FRIENDS AND ACQUAINTANCES BY ACQUAINTANCES

  XXV. THE GENERAL MUST NOT GIVE THE SIGNAL FOR BATTLE OR ANY OTHER ACTION TO HIS ARMY IN PERSON BUT THROUGH HIS OFFICERS

  XXVI. ON GIVING BOTH WATCHWORDS AND COUNTERSIGNS

  XXVII. SOLDIERS SHOULD NEVER LEAVE THE RANKS WHETHER IN FORMATION OR IN RETREAT

  XXVIII. THE GENERAL MUST BE ATTENTIVE TO THE SPLENDOUR OF THE ARMY’S EQUIPMENT

  XXIX. SHOUTING IN THE MIDST OF BATTLE

  XXX. THE GENERAL MUST DECIDE BEFORE BATTLE WHO SHOULD OPPOSE WHOM AND THUS IN ORDER ARRANGE HIS OWN OFFICERS AGAINST THOSE OF THE ENEMY

  XXXI. NARROW PLACES MUST BE CHOSEN IF THE ENEMY ARE SUPERIOR IN CAVALRY

  XXXII. THE GENERAL MUST DO NOTHING RASH

  XXXIII. THE GENERAL SHOULD NOT HIMSELF ENTER BATTLE

  XXXIV. CONFERRING REWARDS PROPORTIONAL TO THE VALOUR OF EACH

  XXXV. (1) INDISCRIMINATE PILLAGE MUST NOT ALWAYS BE PERMITTED; PRISONERS MUST NOT BE REGARDED AS LOOT, BUT MUST BE SOLD BY THE GENERAL

  XXXVI. (1) ON THE BURIAL OF THE FALLEN

  XXXVII. PRECAUTIONS IN TIME OF PEACE

  XXXVIII. (1) TREATMENT OF SURRENDERED CITIES WITH TRUST AND HUMANITY

  XXXIX. (1) ON THE GENERAL’S KNOWLEDGE OF THE COURSES OF THE STARS

  XL. SIEGES

  XLI. AMBUSH LAID BY THE BESIEGER BEFORE THE GATES OF A TOWN

  XLII. (1) FEAR IS A FALSE PROPHET

  A re-enactment of the testudo formation of Roman warfare, as described by Onasander in ‘The General’.

  A depiction of the testudo on Trajan’s Column, a triumphal column in Rome, commemorating the Emperor Trajan’s victory in the Dacian Wars.

  PROOEMIUM

  [1] It is fitting, I believe, to dedicate monographs on horsemanship, or hunting, or fishing, or farming, to men who are devoted to such pursuits, but a treatise on military science, Quintus Veranius, should be dedicated to Romans, and especially to those of the Romans who have attained senatorial dignity, and who through the wisdom of Augustus Caesar have been raised to the power of consul or general, both by reason of their military training (in which they have had no brief experience) and because of the distinction of their ancestors. [2] I have dedicated this treatise primarily to them, not as to men unskilled in generalship, but with especial confidence in this fact, that the ignorant soul is unaware even of that in which another is successful, but knowledge bears additional witness to that which is well done. [3] For this reason, if what I have composed would seem to have been already devised by many others, even then I should be pleased, because I have not only compiled precepts of generalship, but have also endeavoured to get at the art of the general and the wisdom that inheres in the precepts. I should be fortunate if I should be considered capable, before such men, of making a summary sketch of what the Romans have already accomplished by their mighty deeds.

  [4] It remains for me to say with good courage of my work, that it will be a school for good generals, and an object of delight fo
r retired commanders in these times of holy peace; and we shall know, if nothing else, for what reason some generals have stumbled and fallen, but others have prospered and been raised to fame; and we shall consider above all the valour of the Romans, how that neither king, nor state, nor nation has held a greater position of leadership, nor even equalled them in the establishment of a dominion, unshaken through so many years. [5] For it is not by chance, as it seems to me, that they have overrun the boundaries of Italy and extended their sway to the limits of the earth, but by deeds of generalship. For it is necessary to pray to Fortune to do its share, but not to consider that Fortune has entire control. [6] Stupid are those who make disasters chargeable to Fortune alone, rather than to the negligence of commanders, as well as those who attribute successes to her, and not to the skill of the generals. It is neither reasonable simply to dismiss without punishment a general who has met with complete disaster, on the ground that Fortune is responsible for all things, nor is it just to leave the successful general so far without recognition that gratitude for everything is offered to Fortune.

  [7] Now since all men naturally give credit for truthfulness to those who appear to write with professional experience, even though their style be feeble, while for inexperienced writers, even though their teachings are practicable, they feel distrust on account of their lack of reputation, I consider it necessary to say in advance, about the military principles collected in this book, that they have all been derived from experience of actual deeds, and, in fact, of exploits performed by those men from whom has been derived the whole primacy of the Romans, in race and valour, down to the present time. [8] For this treatise presents no impromptu invention of an unwarlike and youthful mind, but all the principles are taken from authentic exploits and battles, especially of the Romans. For the expedients they used in order to avoid suffering harm, and the means by which they contrived to inflict it, all this I have collected. [9] Nor have I failed to perceive that a writer, seeking greater praise from credulous readers, would prefer to have it appear that the source of all the military stratagems he described was himself and his own shrewdness rather than the sagacity of others. But I do not think that the latter diminishes one’s glory. [10] For if a general after experience in the field had composed such a work, it would not be considered of less value because he introduced and commemorated in his work, not only the personal discoveries of his native wit, but also the brilliant deeds of other generals; in the same way I do not consider that I myself shall win less praise, because I admit that not everything I write springs from my own intelligence. On the contrary, I have chosen the opposite course, that I may have praise without reproach and trust without slander.

  I. THE CHOICE OF A GENERAL

  [1] I believe, then, that we must choose a general, not because of noble birth as priests are chosen, nor because of wealth as the superintendents of the gymnasia, but because he is temperate, self-restrained, vigilant, frugal, hardened to labour, alert, free from avarice, neither too young nor too old, indeed a father of children if possible, a ready speaker, and a man with a good reputation.

  [2] The general must be temperate in order that he may not be so distracted by the pleasures of the body as to neglect the consideration of matters of the highest importance.

  [3] He must be self-restrained, since he is to be a man of so great authority; for the licentious impulses, when combined with the authority which confers the power of action, become uncontrollable in the gratification of the passions.

  [4] Vigilant, that he may spend wakeful nights over the most important projects; for at night, as a rule, with the mind at rest, the general perfects his plans.

  [5] Frugal, since expensive attendance upon the luxurious tastes of commanders consumes time unprofitably and causes resources to waste away.

  [6] Hardened to labour, that he may not be the first but the last of the army to grow weary.

  [7] Alert, for the general must be quick, with swiftness of mind darting at every subject — quick, as Homer says, “as a bird, or as thought.” [Odyssey, VII.36. ] For very frequently unexpected disorders arise which may compel him to decide on the spur of the moment what is expedient.

  [8] Free from avarice; for this quality of freedom from avarice will be valued most highly, since it is largely responsible for the incorruptible and large-minded management of affairs. For many who can face the shields and spears of a host with courage are blinded by gold; but gold is a strong weapon against the enemy and effective for victory. [The Romans of this period enjoyed among the Greeks a singularly evil reputation for greed; see especially a striking passage in Diodorus Siculus XXXI.26.]

  [9] Neither too young nor too old; since the young man does not inspire confidence, the old man is feeble, and neither is free from danger, the young man lest he err through reckless daring, the older lest he neglect something through physical weakness. [10] The ideal lies between the two, for physical vigour is found in the man who has not yet grown old, and discretion in the man who is not too young. Those who value physical strength without discretion, or discretion without physical strength, have failed to accomplish anything. For a weak mind can contribute no valuable ideas, nor can strength unsupported bring to completion any activity. [11] Moreover, a man of good reputation is of no slight assistance to those who choose him; for if men have a spontaneous and natural love for their general, they are quick to obey his commands, they do not distrust him, and they coöperate with him in case of danger.

  [12] I should prefer our general to be a father, though I would not refuse a childless man, provided he be a good man. For if he happens to have young children, they are potent spells to keep his heart loyal, availing to bind him to the fatherland, a powerful and keen incentive to a father, capable of arousing his heart against the foe. And should his children have reached manhood, they will become advisers and aides, faithful guardians of his secrets, and they will help him to bring the affairs of state to a successful issue.

  [13] A ready speaker [Thus Homer felt that the great leader must be μύθων τε ῥητῆρ’ ἔμεναι πρηκτῆρά τε ἔργων (Iliad, IX.443), and the harangue before battle was a necessary formality, which a Caesar felt must be delivered even to his tenth legion and in the crisis of the unexpected attack of the Nervii (Bellum Gallicum, II.21.1 f.). Compare also Cicero, Philippica, IV.5.]; for I believe that the greatest benefit can accrue from the work of a general through this gift. For if a general is drawing up his men before battle, the encouragement of his words makes them despise the danger and covet the honour; and a trumpet-call resounding in the ears does not so effectively awaken the soul to the conflict of battle as a speech that urges to strenuous valour rouses the martial spirit to confront danger. Should some disaster befall the army, an encouraging speech will give the men’s souls new strength; and a not unskilful address by the commander is far more useful in counteracting the despondency of an army in the hour of defeat than the physicians who attend to the wounded. [14] For the physicians with their medicines care only for the wounded, whereas the eloquent general not only heartens the disabled but also sets the well on their feet again. [15] Just as hidden diseases are harder to cure than those with external symptoms, so it is more difficult by a consoling speech to cure a heart of its despondency than to minister to an obvious and manifest disease of the body. [16] No city at all will put an army in the field without generals nor choose a general who lacks the ability to make an effective speech.

  [17] The general should be a man of good reputation, because the majority of men, when placed under the command of unknown generals, feel uneasy. For no one voluntarily submits to a leader or an officer who is an inferior man to himself. [18] It is absolutely essential, then, that a general be such a man, of such excellent traits of character as I have mentioned, and besides this, that he have a good reputation.

  [19] A wealthy man in my opinion must not be chosen general on account of his wealth, if he has not these qualities; nor must a poor man, provide
d that he be competent, be rejected on account of his poverty. It is not necessary that the general be rich or poor; he may be the one or the other. Neither the one nor the other must be chosen nor rejected on account of his fortune in life, but must be tested by the standard of character. [20] Even the wealthy general who is good will surpass the noble but poor general only in the same degree that armour inlaid with gold and silver surpasses that of bronze and iron — the former have the advantage in ornamentation but the latter prove superior in efficiency — provided that he is not a man who deals in money. Were he the richest man in the world, I should not ever advise choosing a man who deals in money. I mean by this expression a usurer, a trader, a merchant, or those who are in a similar business. For these men must have petty minds; excited over gain and worried about the means of getting money, they have acquired absolutely none of the noble habits of a general.

  [21] An illustrious family name we should welcome, if it be present, but if lacking it should not be demanded, nor should we judge men worthy or unworthy of commands simply by this criterion; but just as we test the pedigrees of animals in the light of the things they actually do, so we should view the pedigrees of men also. [22] For it is dangerous to consider what fine thing a general’s ancestors have done, rather than what the generals now chosen will do, as if those long dead could still protect us, and as if they would maintain us in our former possessions. As a matter of fact, is it not sheer stupidity to honour soldiers for valour, not those of famous families but those who have done some noble deed themselves, but on the other hand to select generals, even if they are incompetent, on account of their ancestors and not on account of their own worth, even if their families are unknown? [23] Of course, if a general has birth in addition to these other qualities, he is fortunate, but even if he has a famous name without the other qualities, he is useless. [24] It might perhaps be expected that those men who cannot take pride in their ancestors would become even better generals; for men who glory in their forefathers, even if they are themselves failures, believing that the fame of their family is theirs forever are often too careless as administrators, whereas those who have no ancestral renown to begin with, desiring to make up for the obscurity of their lineage by their own zeal, are more eager to take part in dangerous enterprises. [25] Just as the poor man, eager to supply what fortune omitted, will endure more than the rich man in getting a start to make his fortune, so the man who can avail himself of no inheritance of ancestral glory determines to make his own the virtue which he himself acquires.